TheConstitution of the Spartans, also known asPoliteia of the Lacedaemonians, is a short but fascinating treatise by the ancient Greek historian and soldier Xenophon. This work offers a rare glimpse into the political and social system of Sparta, a city-state famous for its military discipline, austere lifestyle, and distinctive governance. Xenophon admired the Spartan way of life and wrote this text not merely as an objective account, but as a tribute to what he saw as a successful and stable society. Through his description, we gain insights into how Spartan institutions functioned, how citizens were trained, and what values were considered vital for a strong state.
Xenophon: The Author and His Perspective
Xenophon was an Athenian born around 430 BCE, a contemporary of Socrates and a participant in military campaigns across the Greek world. Despite being Athenian by birth, Xenophon developed a strong admiration for Sparta and even served under the Spartan king Agesilaus II. His work reflects a unique outsider-insider perspective, offering both informed analysis and clear bias in favor of the Spartan regime.
TheConstitution of the Spartansis not a legal document but rather a descriptive essay outlining the customs and institutions attributed to the legendary lawgiver Lycurgus. Xenophon believed that the Spartans owed their success to Lycurgus’s reforms, which shaped every aspect of life in the city-state, from birth to death.
Lycurgus and the Spartan Constitution
According to Xenophon, the foundation of Spartan society was laid by Lycurgus, a semi-mythical figure who implemented sweeping reforms to strengthen the city’s military and civic life. These reforms formed the basis of what Xenophon viewed as an ideal constitution, one that prioritized unity, discipline, and civic duty over personal freedom or luxury.
Main Elements of the Spartan Constitution
- Dual Kingship: Sparta had two kings, each from a different royal family. They served as military leaders and religious figures but were checked by other bodies of governance.
- Gerousia: A council of 28 elders over the age of 60, along with the two kings, served as an advisory body with judicial functions.
- Ephors: Five elected officials who wielded significant power and were responsible for overseeing the kings, education, and law enforcement.
- Apella: An assembly of male citizens over the age of 30 who voted on legislation and policy proposals submitted by the Gerousia.
These components created a mixed constitution that balanced monarchy, oligarchy, and democracy, ensuring no single institution could dominate the state.
Education and Training: The Agoge
One of the most unique aspects of the Spartan constitution, as described by Xenophon, was the system of education known as theagoge. Designed to produce disciplined warriors and loyal citizens, the agoge was a state-run program that began at the age of seven and continued through adulthood.
Features of the Agoge
- Children were removed from their families to be raised in communal barracks.
- Boys were trained in physical endurance, combat, obedience, and moral virtue.
- They were taught to endure pain, hunger, and discomfort to prepare for the hardships of war.
- The system emphasized group loyalty, silence, and concise speech traits admired by Spartans.
Through the agoge, Spartan males were molded into elite soldiers and citizens who valued duty to the state above personal interest.
Economic and Social Practices
Xenophon also describes the Spartan economy and social structure as intentionally designed to eliminate wealth disparities and promote equality among citizens. Key practices included:
- Land Redistribution: Each male citizen received a plot of land (kleros) to support his household, worked by state-owned serfs called helots.
- Ban on Currency: Use of gold and silver was discouraged; instead, iron currency of little intrinsic value was used to reduce corruption and luxury.
- Common Meals (Syssitia): Adult males were required to dine in communal mess halls, reinforcing social bonds and equality.
This economic simplicity was designed to prevent the accumulation of wealth and foster a collective Spartan identity. The ideal Spartan citizen was expected to live modestly and devote himself entirely to service.
Role of Women in Spartan Society
Unlike in many other Greek city-states, Spartan women enjoyed more freedoms and responsibilities. Xenophon notes that women were encouraged to be physically strong and to manage the household and property while men were away in military service.
Women underwent physical training and were expected to produce healthy offspring. They could inherit and control land, giving them a level of economic influence unheard of in Athens or elsewhere. This was a practical necessity given the militaristic focus of Spartan men but also a reflection of Sparta’s unique societal structure.
Military Structure and Discipline
As a society organized around warfare, the Spartan constitution placed tremendous emphasis on military excellence. Xenophon admired how Spartan soldiers were drilled from a young age and how their discipline on the battlefield often proved decisive.
Spartan armies were led by kings or generals and moved in tightly organized formations. Every aspect of life from clothing and grooming to speech and posture reflected their martial mindset. Cowardice was the greatest dishonor, and bravery was rewarded not with wealth but with public praise and influence.
Religion and Morality
Religion played a central role in legitimizing the Spartan constitution. Xenophon describes how Spartans regularly offered sacrifices to the gods and consulted oracles. Religious observance was seen as a civic duty, and divine favor was believed to be essential for military success.
Spartans were taught that virtue, piety, and obedience to law were the highest goods. This moral foundation helped reinforce the values of honor, courage, and loyalty throughout Spartan society.
Criticism and Decline
Despite Xenophon’s admiration, later historians noted several shortcomings in the Spartan system. Its rigid structure made adaptation difficult. The population of full citizens (Spartiates) declined due to constant warfare, strict inheritance laws, and a refusal to integrate outsiders. Over time, the state’s military dominance waned, and its political model became unsustainable.
Nevertheless, Xenophon’sConstitution of the Spartansprovides a valuable record of how Sparta once functioned as a powerful and unified state. His work captures the idealized version of Spartan life, even if the reality was more complex and at times brutal.
Xenophon’sConstitution of the Spartansremains an essential source for understanding the inner workings of one of ancient Greece’s most unique societies. Through its focus on discipline, shared values, and civic responsibility, the Spartan constitution aimed to create a stable and enduring political order. While modern readers may question some of its more extreme elements, the system’s effectiveness in forging unity and military strength is undeniable. Xenophon’s work continues to influence discussions on leadership, governance, and the role of education in shaping national character.